Q.26 What is cavitation?
Answer: When high-frequency sound waves are passed into a solution, it produces a mechanical vibration effect within the liquid. Thus, the violent disturbance in the liquid results in the formation of minute vacuum bubbles (also called microscopic cavities or voids). This process of bubble formation and its subsequent collapse is known as cavitation.
Q.27 What are the applications of cavitation?
Answer: The phenomenon of cavitation is used in
- Emulsification
- Accelerating chemical reactions
- Ultrasonic cleaning
- Locating minerals and oil deposits
Q.28 What is ultrasonic drilling?
Answer: Ultrasonics are used for making holes in very hard materials like diamond, glass, etc. For this, a suitable drilling tool bit is fixed at the end of a powerful ultrasonic generator. It makes the tool bit to move up and down very quickly. The sherry particles below the bit remove some material from the plate. This process continues and a hole is drilled in the plate.
Q.29 What is ultrasonic welding?
Answer:
The sheets can be welded together at room temperature by using the ultrasonic waves. This is done by attaching a hammer to a powerful ultrasonic generator. The metallic sheets to be welded are assembled together under the tip of a hammer H. The hammer is made to vibrate ultrasonically.
This presses the two metal sheets very rapidly because of which the molecules of one metal diffuse into the molecules of the other. Thus, two sheets get welded without heating.
Q.30 Mention any two medical applications of ultrasonics.
Answer:
- Diagnostic application: They are used to detect tumors and other defects in the human body.
- Surgical application: Ultrasonic waves are used to remove kidney stones and brain tumors without any loss of blood.
- Disease treatment: It can be used to treat diseases like rheumatic pains, etc.
Q.31 What is a crystal? or What is crystalline material? Give example.
Answer: Crystalline solids or crystals are those, in which the constituent atoms or molecules are arranged in an orderly fashion throughout in a three-dimensional pattern.
Example: Copper, silver.
Q.32 What is an amorphous solid? Give example.
Answer: It is a type of solid, in which the atoms or molecules are not arranged in an orderly fashion. i.e., The same atomic groups are arranged more randomly.
Example: Plastic, Rubber.
Q.33 What are the differences between crystalline and non-crystalline materials?
Answer:
| Crytalline material | Non-crystalline material |
|---|---|
| They have defined and regular geometrical shapes that extend throughout the crystal. | They don’t have defined geometrical shapes. |
| They are anisotropic. | They are isotropic. |
| They are most stable. | They are less stable. |
| Example: NaCl, KCl | Example: Plastic, glass, rubber |
Q.34 Define space lattice or crystal lattice.
Answer: A three-dimensional collection of points in space is called a space lattice or crystal lattice. The environment at any particular point is in every way the same.
Q.35 What is the basis or motif?
Answer: A unit assembly of atoms or molecules (i.e., one or more atoms or molecules) identical in composition, arrangement, and orientation is called the basis or motif.
A crystal structure is formed by associating a basis to every lattice point in a space lattice.
Q.36 Define unit cell.
Answer:
Definition 1: The unit cell is defined as the smallest geometric figure, the repetition of which gives the actual crystal structure.
Definition 2: A unit cell in three dimensions is defined as the volume of the solid, from which the entire crystal can be formed by the translational repetition in three dimensions.
Q.37 What is Crystal structure?
Answer: A crystal structure is formed by associating a basis to every lattice point in a space lattice.
i.e., Crytal Structure = Basis + Space lattice
Q.38 What are lattice parameters?
Answer: The intercepts a, b, and c of a unit cell and interfacial angles α, β, and γ along three axes are called the lattice parameters.
Q.39 What is a primitive cell?
Answer: A primitive cell is the simplest type of unit cell which contains one lattice point per unit cell.
Q.40 What is the coordination number?
Answer:
Definition 1: It is the number of nearest neighboring atoms to a particular atom.
Definition 2: Coordination number is the number of nearest neighbors directly surrounding a given atom.
Q.41 What are Miller indices?
Answer: Miller indices are the smallest possible integers that have the same ratios as the reciprocals of the intercepts of the place concerned along the three axes.
Also Read: Miller Indices-Procedure for Finding and Important Features
Q.42 What is the principle of superposition in waves?
Answer:
- The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves overlap, the resulting wave is the sum of the individual waves. This means that the displacement of the resulting wave at any point in space and time is equal to the sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that same point in space and time.
- For example, if two waves with the same frequency and wavelength are traveling in opposite directions and overlapping, the resulting wave will have a displacement equal to the sum of the displacements of the individual waves. This can result in the formation of stationary waves, also known as standing waves, which can have nodes and antinodes where the displacement is zero or a maximum, respectively.
- The principle of superposition is an important concept in wave mechanics and has applications in a wide range of fields, including acoustics, electromagnetism, and quantum mechanics.
Q.43 What is energy and how is it related to work?
Answer:
- Energy is a property of a system or object that is the capacity to do work or produce change. It can be thought of as the ability to cause motion or change in the world around us. There are many different forms of energy, including kinetic energy (the energy of motion), potential energy (the energy of position or configuration), thermal energy (the energy of heat), electrical energy, and more.
- Work is defined as the transfer of energy from one object or system to another. It is equal to the force applied to an object multiplied by the distance over which the force is applied. For example, if you lift a box off the ground and place it on a shelf, you do work on the box by transferring energy to it in the form of kinetic and potential energy.
- The relationship between energy and work is often described by the equation W = ΔE, where W is the work done on or by a system, and ΔE is the change in energy of the system. This equation states that the work done on a system is equal to the change in energy of the system.
- For example, if you lift a box off the ground and place it on a shelf, the work you do on the box increases its potential energy, which is the energy it has due to its position above the ground. The equation W = ΔE can be used to calculate the amount of work done in this situation by determining the change in the potential energy of the box as it is lifted.
Q.44 What is the difference between a scalar and a vector quantity?
Answer:
- A scalar quantity is a physical quantity that is fully described by a magnitude or numerical value, without any reference to direction. Examples of scalar quantities include mass, temperature, and time.
- A vector quantity, on the other hand, is a physical quantity that is fully described by both a magnitude and a direction. Examples of vector quantities include velocity, acceleration, and force.
- One way to distinguish between scalar and vector quantities is to consider how they transform under coordinate transformations. Scalar quantities do not change under coordinate transformations, while vector quantities do. For example, if you rotate a coordinate system, the components of a vector quantity in the new coordinate system will be different from those in the original coordinate system, while the value of a scalar quantity will remain the same.
Q.45 What is the kinetic theory of gases?
Answer:
- The kinetic theory of gases is a theory that explains the behavior of gases in terms of the motion and interactions of their constituent molecules. According to the kinetic theory, the pressure exerted by a gas is due to the collisions of its molecules with the walls of the container. The temperature of a gas is related to the average kinetic energy of its molecules, which increases as the temperature increases.
- The kinetic theory of gases can be used to derive a number of important relationships, such as the ideal gas law, which relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a gas, and the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, which describes the distribution of speeds of the molecules in a gas.
Q.46 What is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle?
Answer:
- The Heisenberg uncertainty principle, also known as the uncertainty principle, is a fundamental principle in quantum mechanics that states that it is impossible to simultaneously measure certain pairs of physical properties of a particle with arbitrary precision. These properties are known as conjugate variables and include position and momentum, energy and time, and spin and angular momentum.
- The uncertainty principle can be expressed mathematically as an inequality, ΔxΔp ≥ h/4π, where Δx is the uncertainty in the position of a particle, Δp is the uncertainty in its momentum, and h is the Planck constant. This inequality states that the product of the uncertainties in the position and momentum of a particle is always greater than or equal to the Planck constant divided by 4π.
- The uncertainty principle has important implications for our understanding of the nature of quantum systems and has led to the development of many important ideas in physics, such as wave-particle duality and the concept of complementarity.
Q.47 What is electromagnetism and how is it related to electricity and magnetism?
Answer:
- Electromagnetism is a branch of physics that deals with the study of the interactions between electric charges and magnetic fields. It is based on the concept of the electromagnetic force, which is the force that acts on charged particles in the presence of an electric or magnetic field.
- Electricity and magnetism are two fundamental phenomena that are related through electromagnetism. Electricity is the flow of electric charge through a conductor, such as a wire, and is related to the concept of electric current. Magnetism is the force that arises from the motion of electric charge and is related to the concept of magnetic fields.
- The relationship between electricity and magnetism was first described by James Clerk Maxwell in the 19th century, who developed a set of equations known as Maxwell’s equations that describe the behavior of electric and magnetic fields. These equations form the basis of classical electromagnetism and are used to predict the behavior of electric and magnetic fields in a wide range of situations.
Q.48 What is quantum mechanics and how does it differ from classical mechanics?
Answer:
- Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics that describes the behavior of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic levels. It is based on the idea that particles, such as electrons and photons, can exhibit both wave-like and particle-like properties and that their behavior cannot be fully described using classical physics.
- Quantum mechanics differs from classical mechanics, which is the branch of physics that describes the behavior of macroscopic objects, in several ways. One key difference is that quantum mechanics allows for the existence of uncertainty and indeterminacy, which means that it is impossible to predict the exact position and momentum of a particle at any given time. In contrast, classical mechanics is based on the idea of determinism, which means that the future state of a system can be predicted with certainty given its initial conditions.
- Another difference is that quantum mechanics introduces the concept of superposition, which is the idea that a particle can exist in multiple states or configurations simultaneously. This is in contrast to classical mechanics, which is based on the idea that a particle can only exist in a single state or configuration at any given time.
Q.49 What is the principle of least action and how is it used in physics?
Answer:
- The principle of least action is a principle in physics that states that the path taken by a particle between two points is the path that minimizes the action of the system. The action of a system is a measure of the change in the system over a period of time and is given by the integral of the Lagrangian over the time interval.
- The principle of least action is a fundamental principle that underlies many important theories in physics, including classical mechanics and quantum mechanics. It is used to predict the behavior of a wide range of physical systems, from simple mechanical systems to complex quantum systems.
- One way that the principle of least action is used in physics is to derive the equations of motion for a system. By minimizing the action of the system, it is possible to derive the equations of motion that describe the behavior of the system over time.
- The principle of least action also has important implications for the conservation of energy, as it can be used to demonstrate that the total energy of a system is conserved when the action of the system is minimized. This is known as the principle of energy conservation.
Q.50 What is the special theory of relativity and how does it differ from the classical theory of relativity?
Answer:
- The special theory of relativity is a theory developed by Albert Einstein that describes the behavior of objects moving at constant speeds in a straight line. It is based on the idea that the laws of physics should be the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion, and that the speed of light is the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion.
- The special theory of relativity is a modification of the classical theory of relativity, which is the idea that the laws of physics should be the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion. The classical theory of relativity is based on the idea that the speed of light is infinite and that the laws of physics should be the same for all observers, regardless of their relative motion.
- One key difference between the special theory of relativity and the classical theory of relativity is that the special theory of relativity introduces the concept of time dilation, which is the idea that time appears to pass slower for objects moving at high speeds. This is in contrast to the classical theory of relativity, which does not allow for the possibility of time dilation.
- Another difference is that the special theory of relativity introduces the concept of length contraction, which is the idea that the length of an object appears to shorten for an observer moving at high speeds relative to the object. This is in contrast to the classical theory of relativity, which does not allow for the possibility of length contraction.
